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版本 c5283b6e51d46af554f8b774d2cea63f6ed98067

embedded/GPIO

Changes from c5283b6e51d46af554f8b774d2cea63f6ed98067 to b76a180fcc880035c3eeff0424886fbd202d86ae

---
title: General-purpose Input/Output (GPIO)
categories: GPIO, STM32F4
...

Introduction - 簡介
===================
**General Purpose Input/Output (GPIO)** is a generic pin on an integrated circuit whose behavior, including whether it is an input or output pin, can be controlled by the user at run time.

* GPIO 是種具有彈性且可以藉由軟體控制 (software-controlled) 的數位訊號
* 常見於開發版邊緣, 以針腳 (Pin) 的形式呈現
  - 這些針腳即是開發版與外界溝通的重要橋樑
  - 簡單例子, 想像成是開關, 使用者可以打開或關閉 (input), 或由開發版來打開或關閉 (output)

* 每個 GPIO 可以被當成 input, output 或 alternate function
  - alternate function 是指其他的的方程式, 如 I2C, SPI, USART, CCP, PWM, Clock, ADC 等。如何控制則取決於外部設備 (peripheral)

STM324xx Main Feature - STM324xx 特性
=====================================
GPIO 雖然建立起記憶體與設備之間的橋梁,但也並非我們就可以隨意使用,我們必須要經過設定之後才能讓我們想要的設備正常工作。

* 所有 GPIO 具有容許較高的電流能力與四種速度選擇,根據不同設定管理雜訊、電耗與電磁波
* 最大 I/O 切換速度可以支援到 90 MHz
* STM32F4xx 每個 GPIO Port 有 10 個 32-bit 暫存器 (Register)
  - Configuration Register: GPIOx_MODER, PIOx_OTYPER, GPIOx_OSPEEDR 與 GPIOx_PUPDR
  - Data Register: GPIOx_IDR and GPIOx_ODR
  - Set/Reset Register: GPIOx_BSRR
  - Locking Register: GPIOx_LCKR
  - Alternate Function Selection Register: GPIOx_AFRH 與 GPIOx_AFRL


一個pin通常可被設定成input、output、alternate function或analog,input會有兩種狀態表現(floating, pull-up/down),output也有兩種狀態表現(push-pull with pull-up/pull-down or open drain with pull-up/down)。

- input/output方向解說 : input是指記憶體方接收來自設備的訊號源,output是指記憶體傳送訊號給設備。

當pin被設定成input時,非analog的設定下,我們可以利用GPIO的input data register(GPIOx_IDR) 或是memory中提供給目標設備的data register (當設成alternate function的時候)去接收data。

當pin被設定成output時,非analog的設定下,GPIO本身有提供output data register (GPIOx_ODR)來對目標設備做控制,但要是pin不是使用原本預先定義好的功能時(非預先定義的功能都算是alternate function的類別),此時要用memory中,另外規劃給目標設備用的register。

如果pin被設成analog的話,無論input or output都會由adc/dac那邊做處理。

Functional Description
======================
input
-------------------

- floating vs. pull-up/pull-down

當input pin被處在高阻抗的模式下,若沒有外部訊號源進來的話,此時是無法確定pin的狀態(不能確定現在處在高電位或低電位),除非有外部訊號來驅動電路。換句話說,input floating,這個input電位狀態完全是由外部訊號來決定,沒有訊號驅動的話,就會呈現高阻抗狀態。

剛剛提到floating在沒有外部訊號驅動的情況下是呈現高阻抗狀態(無法確定電位狀態=>不能明確表示現在值是0或1),如果我們需要這個pin有一個明確的預設狀態時,必須借助pull-up(pull-down)resistor來做調整,在pull-up resistor(pull-up外接高電壓,pull-down通常會接地)加入之下,讓pin的維持在明確的高電壓狀態(pull-down則是讓pin維持在低電壓狀態)。舉例來說,如果我們定電壓在3-4 V之間是1的狀態,0-1之間是0的狀態,高阻抗的時候,電壓是不明確的,有可能電壓值會落在1-3之間的不明確地帶,甚至是沒有在任何一個狀態維持一段時間,此時的狀態是未定的,但如果我們加入pull-up resistor的話,這個pin接受來自pull-up另一端的電壓供應,讓pin至少維持在3v以上時,我們就可以確定在沒有外部訊號驅動時,pin是維持在高電位狀態。

output
-------------------
- push-pull vs open-drain mode

output處在push-pull模式下時,當output registers為"0"時輸出低電位,"1"時輸出高電位。而在open-drain模式下,"0"輸出低電位,"1"時為高阻抗(Hi-Z)狀態,電位無法確定。此兩種模式下,pin皆可pull-up/pull-down。

當有多個輸出pin在互相連通時(例如一個bus),若有兩個輸出呈不同狀態,電路上的電位便無法確定。因此,除了正在輸出的pin以外,其他pin應在高阻抗態以免干擾。以bus的例子來說,若令所有pin皆在open-drain mode pull-up,並使非輸出端pin為"1"(hi-Z),當輸出pin為"1"時,bus為高電位(因為pull-up);當輸出pin為"0"時,bus為低電位。

analog
-------------------

前面所述的input/output跟現在要談的類比模式是不一樣的類型,前者的資料型態主要是高低電位的數位型態(0/1的分別),而類比訊號是普遍自然界的訊號型態,故當我們設定成類比輸入的模式時,進來GPIO pin的原始訊號源在還沒經過施密特觸發器(Schmitt trigger)會有另一個線路將訊號做導向(通常是要導到ADC去),另一方面,當我們用了類比輸出模式後,GPIO的內部將會有一條線路接收DAC處理完的類比訊號,在經過此pin傳遞到外部去。

- 施密特觸發器(Schmitt trigger) : 將類比訊號的波形整成數位電路所能處理的方波波形(處理完只能分辨出高低電位的差別)。

.. image:: /embedded/Schmitt_trigger.jpg
(施密特觸發器具有整流效果)

basic structure (P.266, **Figure 25. Basic structure of a five-volt tolerant I/O port bit** in Reference manual)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.. image:: /embedded/GPIO_basic_src.PNG
- VDD:晶片內部的工作電壓
- VDD_FT : I/O port專用電壓,與VDD不同
- VSS:接地點
- protection diode : 防止輸入電壓超過一定範圍。當電壓低於VSS時,電流通過protection diode流入pin;當電壓高於VDD_FT時,電流流出pin。

Configuration
=============
Input configuration (P.273, **8.3.9 Input configuration** in Reference manual)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.. image:: /GPIO_ Input_configurations.png
When the I/O port is programmed as Input:

- the output buffer is disabled
- the Schmitt trigger input is activated
  - 這種模式處理的數位訊號只在意高低電位的差別(開關控制)。

- the pull-up and pull-down resistors are activated depending on the value in the GPIOx_PUPDR register 
  - 想要讓pin的state變成一個確定的狀態,可以設定pull-up/pull-down的使用。

- The data present on the I/O pin are sampled into the input data register every AHB1 clock cycle
  - input data的更新主要就是以AHB1本身的更新週期做決定,每一個cycle抵達時,data register就會根據當時Schmitt trigger整流完的狀態做更新。

- A read access to the input data register provides the I/O State
  - 對data register的理解,我覺得用'狀態'比'數值'的敘述來的更好(大部分都是開關,就是外部訊號源是否有狀態改變,如 : button的按下與放開),而此處寫I/O state的意思是,即使我們現在是設成output(如 : LED控制),但我們仍然可用input data register來檢查LED現在的狀態。

Output configuration (P.274, **8.3.10 Output configuration** in Reference manual)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.. image:: /GPIO_ Output_configurations.png
When the I/O port is programmed as output:

.. TODO: Output Control

- The output buffer is enabled:
   - Open drain mode: A “0” in the Output register activates the N-MOS whereas a “1” in the Output register leaves the port in Hi-Z (the P-MOS is never activated)
   - Push-pull mode: A “0” in the Output register activates the N-MOS whereas a “1” in the Output register activates the P-MOS
   - 如前所述,設定Open drain / Push-pull的使用。
- The Schmitt trigger input is activated
- The weak pull-up and pull-down resistors are activated or not depending on the value in the GPIOx_PUPDR register
- The data present on the I/O pin are sampled into the input data register every AHB1 clock cycle
- A read access to the input data register gets the I/O state
- A read access to the output data register gets the last written value
  - 不一定與當下pin的狀態相同

Alternate function configuration (P.275, **8.3.11 Alternate function configuration** in Reference manual)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.. image:: /GPIO_Alternate_function_configuration.PNG
When the I/O port is programmed as alternate function:

- The output buffer can be configured as open-drain or push-pull
- The output buffer is driven by the signal coming from the peripheral (transmitter enable and data)
- The Schmitt trigger input is activated
- The weak pull-up and pull-down resistors are activated or not depending on the value in the GPIOx_PUPDR register
- The data present on the I/O pin are sampled into the input data register every AHB1 clock cycle
- A read access to the input data register gets the I/O state

Remark:

GPIOx_AFRL[31:0] and GPIOx_AFRH[31:0] provide ways to select alternation functions. However, different alternate functions maps to different bits of ports.
For more information, please refer to **Table 12. Alternate function mapping** from P.73 in STM32F429xx Datasheet.

Analog configuration (P.276, **8.3.12 Analog configuration** in Reference manual)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.. image:: /GPIO_Analog_configurations.PNG
When the I/O port is programmed as analog configuration:

- The output buffer is disabled
- The Schmitt trigger input is deactivated, providing zero consumption for every analog value of the I/O pin. The output of the Schmitt trigger is forced to a constant value (0).
- The weak pull-up and pull-down resistors are disabled
- Read access to the input data register gets the value “0”

Note: In the analog configuration, the I/O pins cannot be 5 Volt tolerant.
  - analog operating voltage (VDDA) max at 3.6V

Registers
===========
GPIO port mode register (GPIOx_MODER) (x = A..I/J/K)
----------------------------------------------------
.. image:: /embedded/GPIO_port_mode.png
MODERy[1:0]決定第y pin GPIO使用的configuration,2個bit為一組

- 00: Input (reset state)
- 00: Input
- 01: output mode
- 10: Alternate function mode
- 11: Analog mode
- 當reset後,GPIOA_MODER=0xA800 0000、GPIOB_MODER=0x0000 0280,其他皆為0。

GPIO port output type register(GPIOx_OTYPER)
--------------------------------------------
.. image:: /embedded/GPIO_port_output_type.png
決定在output時使用的模式(如前面Functional Description.output所述)。

- 0: Output push-pull (reset state)
- 0: Output push-pull
- 1: Output open-drain
- reset皆為0x0000 0000

GPIO port output speed register (GPIOx_OSPEEDR)
-----------------------------------------------
.. image:: /embedded/GPIO_port_output_speed.png
OSPEEDRy[1:0]決定output的取樣頻率。在不同的電容與電壓(VDD)下,取樣頻率可能不同,以下只列出代表值。

- 00: Low speed (2MHz)
- 01: Medium speed (10MHz)
- 10: Fast speed (50MHz)
- 11: High speed (100MHz)
- reset GPIOB_OSPEEDR=0x0000 00C0,其他皆為皆為0x0000 0000
- 速度越高,雜訊與耗電量越多。
- 在其他狀態下的速度,可以參考 datasheet p134 table 58. I/O AC Characteristics

GPIO port pull-up/pull-down register (GPIOx_PUPDR)
--------------------------------------------------
.. image:: /embedded/GPIO_port_pull.png
PUPDRy[1:0]決定pin y是否pull-up/pull-down

- 00: No pull-up, pull-down
- 01: Pull-up
- 10: Pull-down
- 11: Reserved
- reset GPIOA_PUPDR=0x6400 0000、GPIOB_PUPDR=0x0000 0100,其他0x0000 0000。


Demo
=======
實驗設備
--------
除了STM32本身外,我們使用一台訊號產生器與一台示波器。
將訊號產生器輸出(+)接到示波器的channel 1(黃色)與PA0,STM32的輸出PG14接示波器的channel 2(藍色),訊號產生器的接地(-)接到STM32的GND與示波器channel 1/2的負極。

.. image:: /embedded/starting_ state.jpg
起始狀態,程式將PA0的輸入GPIOA_IDR shift後送到 GPIOG_ODR,由PG13輸出。

.. image:: /embedded/schmitt_sin.jpg
sin波

.. image:: /embedded/schmitt_tri.jpg
三角波

.. image:: /embedded/interrupt_func_delay.jpg
visible interrupt delay ,about 2000ns

.. image:: /embedded/interrupt_func_1M.jpg
頻率再增加的結果

.. image:: /embedded/polling_func_delay.jpg
使用polling的結果,delay大約750ns

.. image:: /embedded/pulling_dir_delay.jpg
不用function call,delay大約250ns

.. image:: /embedded/interrupt_dir_delay.jpg
interrupt不用function call,delay大約1500ns

.. image:: /embedded/interrupt_func_frqup.jpg
把interrupt頻率加快的結果

.. image:: /embedded/interrupt_func_frqup2.jpg
interrupt頻率再增加的結果


.. image:: /embedded/pull_down_res.jpg
一般的下拉電阻

.. image:: /embedded/pull_down_resl.jpg
PA10 /PB12

Code Section
-------------

sample code download : 

.. code-block:: c

    git clone https://github.com/shengwen1997/stm32_GPIO_demo.git
    cd stm32_GPIO_demo/

test for code :

.. code-block:: c

    make
    make flash

測試方法 : 

- input使用button作為範例,output是LED控制。

stm32f4_discovery library的預先定義(in libstm/Utilities/STM32F4-Discovery/stm32f4_discovery.h) :

.. code-block:: c

    #define LEDn                             4

    #define LED4_PIN                         GPIO_Pin_12
    #define LED4_GPIO_PORT                   GPIOD
    #define LED4_GPIO_CLK                    RCC_AHB1Periph_GPIOD  
  
    #define LED3_PIN                         GPIO_Pin_13
    #define LED3_GPIO_PORT                   GPIOD
    #define LED3_GPIO_CLK                    RCC_AHB1Periph_GPIOD  
  
    #define LED5_PIN                         GPIO_Pin_14
    #define LED5_GPIO_PORT                   GPIOD
    #define LED5_GPIO_CLK                    RCC_AHB1Periph_GPIOD  
  
    #define LED6_PIN                         GPIO_Pin_15
    #define LED6_GPIO_PORT                   GPIOD
    #define LED6_GPIO_CLK                    RCC_AHB1Periph_GPIOD

    #define BUTTONn                          1  

    #define USER_BUTTON_PIN                GPIO_Pin_0
    #define USER_BUTTON_GPIO_PORT          GPIOA
    #define USER_BUTTON_GPIO_CLK           RCC_AHB1Periph_GPIOA
    #define USER_BUTTON_EXTI_LINE          EXTI_Line0
    #define USER_BUTTON_EXTI_PORT_SOURCE   EXTI_PortSourceGPIOA
    #define USER_BUTTON_EXTI_PIN_SOURCE    EXTI_PinSource0
    #define USER_BUTTON_EXTI_IRQn          EXTI0_IRQn 

- LED是屬於GPIO port D,第12-15個pin分別是控制,LED4、LED3、LED5、LED6。
- Button是屬於GPIO port A,第0個pin是可以用來檢查button狀態的腳位。在文件中,有時會看到Wake-up button這一名稱,其實就是在說User button,兩者是指同一個東西。


input 設定 :

- button initialization(in libstm/Utilities/STM32F4-Discovery/stm32f4_discovery.c) :

.. code-block:: c

    void STM_EVAL_PBInit(Button_TypeDef Button, ButtonMode_TypeDef Button_Mode)
    {
       GPIO_InitTypeDef GPIO_InitStructure;
       EXTI_InitTypeDef EXTI_InitStructure;
       NVIC_InitTypeDef NVIC_InitStructure;

       /* 要設定好Clock才能正確更新Button的State,BUTTON_CLK[Button]是指RCC_AHB1Periph_GPIOA */
       RCC_AHB1PeriphClockCmd(BUTTON_CLK[Button], ENABLE);
       RCC_APB2PeriphClockCmd(RCC_APB2Periph_SYSCFG, ENABLE);

       /* 設定為input mode,我們不給pin任何預設狀態,所PuPd的部份設成NOPULL */
       GPIO_InitStructure.GPIO_Mode = GPIO_Mode_IN;
       GPIO_InitStructure.GPIO_PuPd = GPIO_PuPd_NOPULL;
       GPIO_InitStructure.GPIO_Pin = BUTTON_PIN[Button];
       GPIO_Init(BUTTON_PORT[Button], &GPIO_InitStructure);

       if (Button_Mode == BUTTON_MODE_EXTI)
       {
         /* 啟用interrupt並建立好與button腳位的連結 */
         SYSCFG_EXTILineConfig(BUTTON_PORT_SOURCE[Button], BUTTON_PIN_SOURCE[Button]);

         /* Configure Button EXTI line */
         EXTI_InitStructure.EXTI_Line = BUTTON_EXTI_LINE[Button];
         EXTI_InitStructure.EXTI_Mode = EXTI_Mode_Interrupt;
         EXTI_InitStructure.EXTI_Trigger = EXTI_Trigger_Rising;  
         EXTI_InitStructure.EXTI_LineCmd = ENABLE;
         EXTI_Init(&EXTI_InitStructure);

         /* Enable and set Button EXTI Interrupt to the lowest priority */
         NVIC_InitStructure.NVIC_IRQChannel = BUTTON_IRQn[Button];
         NVIC_InitStructure.NVIC_IRQChannelPreemptionPriority = 0x0F;
         NVIC_InitStructure.NVIC_IRQChannelSubPriority = 0x0F;
         NVIC_InitStructure.NVIC_IRQChannelCmd = ENABLE;

         NVIC_Init(&NVIC_InitStructure); 
       }
     }

- Button interrupt handler(in main.c)

.. code-block:: c

    void EXTI0_IRQHandler(void) 
    {
      /* 當Button按下後觸發interrupt,用自定義變數紀錄Button state的改變。 */
      UserButtonPressed = 0x01;
  
      /* Clear the EXTI line pending bit */
      EXTI_ClearITPendingBit(USER_BUTTON_EXTI_LINE);
    }

output 設定 :

- LED initialization (in libstm/Utilities/STM32F4-Discovery/stm32f4_discovery.c) :

.. code-block:: c

    void STM_EVAL_LEDInit(Led_TypeDef Led)
    {
      GPIO_InitTypeDef  GPIO_InitStructure;
  
      /* LED是屬於Port D,要設定好Clk讓Port D可以正確被更新 */
      RCC_AHB1PeriphClockCmd(GPIO_CLK[Led], ENABLE);

      /* 設定各LED對應的腳位,output type設成push-pull,並使用pull-up電阻,LED初始化完成時,會呈現高電位狀態(亮燈)。 */
      GPIO_InitStructure.GPIO_Pin = GPIO_PIN[Led];
      GPIO_InitStructure.GPIO_Mode = GPIO_Mode_OUT;
      GPIO_InitStructure.GPIO_OType = GPIO_OType_PP;
      GPIO_InitStructure.GPIO_PuPd = GPIO_PuPd_UP;
      GPIO_InitStructure.GPIO_Speed = GPIO_Speed_50MHz;
      GPIO_Init(GPIO_PORT[Led], &GPIO_InitStructure);
    }

main.c : 

- main function :

.. code-block:: c

    int main(void)
    {
      RCC_ClocksTypeDef RCC_Clocks;
  
      /* button初始化,並使用interrupt。 */
      STM_EVAL_PBInit(BUTTON_USER, BUTTON_MODE_EXTI); 

      /* 初始化需要用到的LED。 */
      STM_EVAL_LEDInit(LED4);
      STM_EVAL_LEDInit(LED3);
      STM_EVAL_LEDInit(LED5);
      STM_EVAL_LEDInit(LED6);

      /* 初始化有使用到pull-up電阻,預設會亮燈,在這邊把燈關掉。 */
      STM_EVAL_LEDOff(LED4);
      STM_EVAL_LEDOff(LED3);
      STM_EVAL_LEDOff(LED5);
      STM_EVAL_LEDOff(LED6);
    
      /* 初始化自定義變數 */
      UserButtonPressed = 0x00;

      /* Create a task to flash the LED. */
      xTaskCreate(LED_task,
             (signed portCHAR *) "LED Flash",
             512 /* stack size */, NULL,
             tskIDLE_PRIORITY + 5, NULL);

      /* Create a task to button check. */
      xTaskCreate(button_task,
             (signed portCHAR *) "User Button",
             512 /* stack size */, NULL,
             tskIDLE_PRIORITY + 5, NULL);

      /* Start running the tasks. */
      vTaskStartScheduler(); 

      return 0;
    }

- LED control task

.. code-block:: c

    static void LED_task(void *pvParameters)
    {
      RCC_ClocksTypeDef RCC_Clocks;
      uint8_t togglecounter = 0x00;

      while(1)
      {    
          /* Toggle LED5 */
          STM_EVAL_LEDToggle(LED5);
          vTaskDelay(100);
          /* Toggle LED6 */
          STM_EVAL_LEDToggle(LED6);
          vTaskDelay(100);
      }
    }

- Button check task :

.. code-block:: c

    static void button_task(void *pvParameters)
    {
       	    while (1)
            {
                /* Waiting User Button is pressed */
    	        if (UserButtonPressed == 0x01)
    	        {
      	            /* Toggle LED4 */
      	            STM_EVAL_LEDToggle(LED4);
      	            vTaskDelay(100);
      	            /* Toggle LED3 */
      	            STM_EVAL_LEDToggle(LED3);
      	            vTaskDelay(100);
      	        }
      	        /* Waiting User Button is Released */
      	        while (STM_EVAL_PBGetState(BUTTON_USER) == Bit_SET);
      	        UserButtonPressed = 0x00;
      	   }
      }


Supplement
==========
- 一些有預設控制元件的腳位
  - LD3:綠色,連接到PG13
  - LD4:紅色,連接到PG14
  - B1(USER):連接到PA0
  - B2(RESET):連接到NRST,用於重置

Q & A
=========
**1. Pull-up與Pull-down的電阻是多少?**

(請參考Datasheet p.110,Table 47. I/O static characteristics)

.. image:: /STM32F429_IOstatic.png

實際測量:

- 將三用電表調到測量電阻的功能
- 將三用電表的正極接在要測的I/O pin上(設成pull-down),負極接地
- 觀察電表的數字即可得當前電阻

**2. GPIO中取樣頻率的意義?**

假設input data是0、1、0、1、……的方波,並以V0的速度變化,此時若GPIO本身的取樣頻率是1/2 V0,則取到的data會全是1或全是0,所以了解GPIO的取樣頻率可以讓使用者設計input data時不以過快的速度做資料的輸入。

取樣頻率可由GPIOx_OSPEEDRy[1:0]設定,各模式下的速度可參考datasheet p134 table 58. I/O AC Characteristics

**3. 何謂TTL?**

全名Transistor-Transistor Logic,數位IC的種類之一,依製程不同可分為TTL與CMOS(complement metal oxide semiconductor)兩種:

TTL:內部零件多以雙極性電晶體組成。

CMOS:內部零件多以金屬氧化物半導體組成。

(補充)差異性比較:

TTL電路的速度快,傳輸延遲時間短(5-10ns),但是功耗大。

CMOS電路的速度慢,傳輸延遲時間長(25-50ns),但功耗低。

**4. STM32 RCC clock**


System clock setup

- Internal High Speed Clock (HSI)

- External High Speed Clock (HSE)

- Phase locked Loop (PLL)



Bus clock setup

- Advanced High Performance Bus (AHB)

- Low speed Advanced Peripherial Bus (APB1)

- High speed Advanced Peripherial Bus (APB2)


**5. 波形抖動問題**

Sampling jitter    [from Wikipedia]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jitter

In analog to digital and digital to analog conversion of signals, the sampling is normally assumed to be periodic with a fixed period—the time between every two samples is the same. If there is jitter present on the clock signal to the analog-to-digital converter or a digital-to-analog converter, the time between samples varies and instantaneous signal error arises.


Reference
=========
- `General Purpose Input/Output - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Purpose_Input/Output>`_
- `STM32F429xx Datasheet<http://www.st.com/web/en/resource/technical/document/datasheet/DM00071990.pdf>`_
- `STM32F42xxx Reference Manual<http://www.st.com/web/en/resource/technical/document/reference_manual/DM00031020.pdf>`_
- `STM32F429 pin mapping<http://mikrocontroller.bplaced.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Pinbelegung_f429_v100.html>`_
- `STM32F4-Discovery 中文使用手冊</embedded/STM32-Discovery-Manual-Chinese.pdf>`_
- `稀里糊塗學 STM32 第二講:源源不絕</embedded/learn-stm32-part-2.pdf>`_
- `GPIO PPT</embedded/GPIO_v3.ppt>`_